What Three Things Should All Doctrines Be Tested With According to Mo Tzus Book Against Fate

April 02, 2022 Post a Comment

Mozi (Mo-tzu, c. 400s—300s B.C.E.)

mozi Mo Di (Mo Ti), improve known equally Mozi (Mo-tzu) or "Master Mo," was a Chinese thinker active from the late fifth to the early 4th centuries B.C.E. He is best remembered for being the offset major intellectual rival to Confucius and his followers. Mozi'due south teaching is summed upwardly in ten theses extensively argued for in the text that bears his proper name, although he himself is unlikely to have been its author. The most famous of these theses is the injunction that one ought to exist concerned for the welfare of people in a spirit of "impartial business organisation" (jian'ai) that does not make distinctions between self and other, assembly and strangers, a doctrine often described more simplistically as "universal honey." Mozi founded a quasi-religious and paramilitary customs that, apart from propagating the ten theses, lent assistance to small states under threat from military aggressors with their expertise in counter-siege engineering science. Forth with the Confucians, the Mohists were one of the two most prominent schools of thought during the Warring States menses (403-221 B.C.Due east.), although contemporary sources such every bit the Hanfeizi and the Zhuangzi indicate that the Mohists had divided into rival sects by this fourth dimension. While Mohist communities probably did non survive into the Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.E.), Mohist ideas exerted a decisive influence upon the thinkers of early on China. Between the tardily 4th and late third centuries B.C.E., later Mohists wrote the primeval extant Chinese treatise on logic, as well as works on geometry, optics and mechanics. Mohist logic appears to have influenced the argumentative techniques of early Chinese thinkers, while Mohist visions of meritocracy and the public good helped to shape the political philosophies and policy decisions of both the Qin and Han (202 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) majestic regimes. In these ways, Mohist ideas survived well into the early regal era, albeit by being captivated into other Chinese philosophical traditions.

Historical Background
The Cadre Capacity of the Mozi
The Ten Cadre Theses of Mohism
The Aims and Grapheme of Mohist Doctrine
Moral Epistemology
The Foundations of Mohist Morality
Impartial Business
Moral Psychology and Human Nature
Government
Frugality
Just State of war
Heaven and Spirits
References and Further Reading

one. Historical Groundwork

The details of Mozi'due south life are uncertain. Early sources identify him variously equally a gimmicky of Confucius or as living afterwards Confucius' time. Modern scholars generally believe that Mozi was active from the tardily 5th to the early 4th centuries B.C.E., earlier the time of the Confucian philosopher Mencius, which places him in the early Warring States menstruation (403-221 B.C.East.) of ancient Chinese history. Trivial can be known of his personal life. Some early sources say that he, similar Confucius, was a native of the state of Lu (in modern Shandong) and at i bespeak served every bit a minister in the state of Song (in modern Henan). Co-ordinate to tradition, he studied with Confucian teachers only after rebelled confronting their ideas. Equally was the case with Confucius, Mozi probably traveled among the various contending states to present his ideas before their rulers in the promise of obtaining political employment, with an equal lack of success.

Mozi founded a highly organized quasi-religious and military customs, with considerable geographical attain. Overseen by a "Grand Master" (juzi), members of the community — "Mohists" (mozhe) — were characterized past their commitment to ten theses ascribed to "Our Teacher Principal Mo" (zimozi), versions of which are articulated in the "Core Chapters" of the eponymous text. Quite apart from propagating the teachings of Mozi, the Mohist customs as well functioned as an international rescue organization that dispatched members versed in the arts of defensive military techniques to the aid of small states under threat from military aggressors. This outreach presumably stemmed from the Mohists' opposition to all forms of military aggression.

Some scholars speculate that Mozi and the Mohists probably came from a lower social form than, for instance, the Confucians, but the show is inconclusive and at all-time suggestive. Even so, if the conjecture is true, information technology could well explain the often repetitive and artless style in which much of the Mozi is composed and the anti-aristocratic stance of much Mohist doctrine, as well as why the Mohists paid such attention to the bones economical livelihood of the common people.

two. The Core Capacity of the Mozi

The text known as the Mozi traditionally is divided into 70-one "chapters," some of which are marked "missing" in the received text. Most scholars believe that the Mozi was probably not written past Master Mo himself, just by successive groups of disciples and their followers. No part of the text actually claims to be written by Mozi, although many parts purport to record his doctrines and conversations.

While at that place remain intense and complicated scholarly disputes over the exact dating and provenance of different parts of the Mohist corpus, it is probable that chapters 8-37 (the then-called "core capacity") derive either from the teachings of Mozi himself or from the formative flow of the Mohist customs and comprise doctrines that were nominally adhered to by its members throughout much of the community'due south existence. The core chapters are replete with the formula "the doctrine of Our Teacher Master Mo says" (zimozi yan yue), prefixed to sayings presented every bit records of Master Mo's pedagogy. (However, since the text most likely was not written by Mozi himself, this entry will refer to the doctrine presented in the cadre capacity in terms of "the Mohists" and "Mohist doctrine" rather than "Mozi" and "Mozi's doctrine.")

The core chapters consist of ten triads of essays, with seven chapters marked "missing." Each triad of capacity correlates with one of the x Mohist theses. Traditionally, these triads correspond to the "upper" (shang), "middle" (zhong) and "lower" (xia) versions of the thesis in question; in Western scholarship, they are normally referred to as versions "A," "B," and "C" of the corresponding thesis. Intriguingly, the chapters that make up each triad often are very shut to each other in wording without being exactly identical, thus raising questions about the precise relationship between them and with how the text assumed its present shape. One influential theory in contempo times is Angus C. Graham's proposal that the triads correspond to oral traditions of Mohist doctrine transmitted by the three Mohist sects mentioned in the Hanfeizi, a third century B.C.Due east. philosophical text associated with a educatee of the Confucian thinker Xunzi.

Much of the core chapters is written in a style that is not calculated to please. Every bit Burton Watson puts it, the style is "marked by a atypical monotony of judgement pattern, and a lack of wit or grace that is atypical of Chinese literature in general." Merely Watson too concedes that the Mohists' arguments "are almost always presented in an orderly and lucid, if non logically convincing manner." Whether or non the arguments of the core chapters are logically convincing can but be determined on a case-by-case footing, but it is at to the lowest degree possible that the artless style is the consequence of a deliberate pick to prioritize clarity of argumentation.

3. The Ten Core Theses of Mohism

The contents of the ten triads and thus the outlines of the ten core theses are briefly described below:

Chapters 8-x, "Elevating the Worthy" (shangxian), contend that the policy of elevating worthy and capable people to function in authorities whatever their social origin is a primal principle of practiced governance. The proper implementation of such a policy requires that the rulers attract the talented to service by the conferring of honor, the reward of wealth and the delegation of responsibleness (and thus power). On the other hand, the rulers' practice of appointing kinsmen and favorites to office without regard to their abilities is condemned.

Chapters 11-thirteen, "Exalting Unity" (shangtong), comprise a land-of-nature argument on the basis of which it is concluded that a unified conception of what is morally right (yi) consistently enforced past a hierarchy of rulers and leaders is a necessary condition for social and political order. The thesis applies to the world community as a whole, conceived every bit a single moral-political hierarchy with the mutual people at the bottom, the feudal princes in the middle, and the emperor at the summit, above whom is Heaven itself.

Chapters xiv-16, "Impartial Concern" (jian'ai), debate that the cause of the world'due south troubles lies in people's trend to act out of a greater regard for their ain welfare than that of others, and that of associates over that of strangers, with the consequence that they oft have no qualms most benefiting themselves or their own associates at the expense of others. The conclusion is that people ought to be concerned for the welfare of others without making distinctions between self, assembly and strangers.

Chapters 17-19, "Against Military Aggression" (feigong), condemn military aggression as both unprofitable (even for the aggressors) and immoral. Version C introduces a distinction between justified and unjustified warfare, claiming that the one-time was waged past the righteous ancient sage rulers to overthrow evil tyrants.

Chapters xx-21 (22 is listed as "missing"), "Frugality in Expenditures" (jieyong), argue that good governance requires thrift in the ruler's expenditures. Useless luxuries are condemned. The chapters also debate for the clear priority of functionality over form in the making of diverse human being artifacts (clothing, buildings, armor and weapons, boats and other vehicles).

Chapter 25 (23-24 are listed as "missing"), "Frugality in Funerals" (jiezang), has the same theme as "Frugality in Expenditures," but applies it to the specific instance of funeral rituals. The aristocratic practices of elaborate funerals and prolonged mourning are condemned as "non morally right" (buyi) because they are non only useless to solving the world'south problems, simply add to the people's burdens. Hither, the Mohists target practices beloved by their Confucian contemporaries, for whom the maintenance of harmonious moral order in society is all-time achieved through strict fidelity to ritual codes.

Chapters 26-28, "Heaven'due south Volition" (Tianzhi), argue that the will of Heaven (Tian) — portrayed every bit if it is a personal deity and providential amanuensis who rewards the skillful and punishes the wicked — is the criterion of what is morally correct. Here over again, the Mohists contrast themselves with the Confucians, who regard Heaven as a moral simply mysterious force that does non intervene directly in human affairs.

Affiliate 31 (29-30 are listed as "missing"), "Elucidating the Spirits" (minggui), claims that a loss of conventionalities in the beingness, power and providential character of spirits — supernatural agents of Tian tasked with enforcing its sanctions — has led to widespread immorality and social and political chaos. The chapter consists of an substitution with certain skeptics, whom Mozi answers with arguments purporting to prove that providential spirits be, simply besides that widespread belief in their beingness brings great social and political do good.

Chapter 32 (33-34 are listed as "missing"), "Against Music" (feiyue), condemns the musical displays of the aristocracy as immoralon the same basis co-ordinate to which elaborate funerals and prolonged mourning are condemned in "Frugality in Funerals." Just as in that chapter, here again the Mohists attack practices that are particularly dear to their Confucian rivals, who believe that music, if properly performed co-ordinate to ancient canons, can play a vital role in the regulation of moral order and the cultivation of virtue.

Capacity 35-37, "Confronting Fatalism" (feiming), argue against the doctrine of fatalism (the thesis that human wisdom and endeavor have no upshot on the outcomes of human endeavor) every bit pernicious and harmful in that widespread belief in information technology will pb to indolence and chaos. The chapters also incorporate crucial discussions on the general conditions or criteria (traditionally called the "Three Tests of Doctrine") that must be met by whatever doctrine if it is to be considered sound. (Encounter Section five: "Moral Epistemology" below.)

4. The Aims and Graphic symbol of Mohist Doctrine

As in the case of many other philosophical conceptions in early Communist china, Mohist doctrine is deeply rooted in the thinkers' response to the social and political problems that are perceived to beset the earth (tianxia, "all beneath Heaven"). In particular, the Mohists are concerned to offering a practical solution to the anarchy (luan) of the world so as to restore it to good guild (zhi). A way to characterize the Mohists' business organisation is to say that they (like many early on Chinese philosophers) seek and to put the Mode (dao, the right way to live and to carry the community's affairs) into practice rather than but to discover and state the Truth nearly the universe. Only at that place are as well several more distinctively Mohist twists to this underlying concern.

First, the Mohists tend to equate the Manner with a conception of what is morally correct (yi or renyi ). For them, proficient guild obtains when "right rules" (yizheng) rather than "might rules" (lizheng) in the world, and "right rules" when agents (both individual and groups) carry themselves in a manner that is morally right. A way by which we might make sense of the Mohists' projection is to see it as concerned with promoting the public good, where the public good is defined in terms of social and political justice.

Second, Mohist doctrine is about exclusively concerned with moral beliefs rather than moral graphic symbol although, to be more precise, the principal object of moral evaluation in Mohist doctrine is usually a way of conduct (for the private) or a policy (for the state), rather than individual acts. In line with this focus on behavior, concepts that are naturally understood to be virtues or desirable qualities of agents (e.g., benignancy and filial piety) in Confucian texts often are discussed as if they are reducible to the moral rightness of conduct. In "Frugality in Funerals," for case, "the business concern of the filial son" is defined in terms of conduct that benefits the world, which is in turn, a criterion of moral rightness (run across the adjacent section).

Third, the Mohists run across the morally right every bit conceptually distinct from the customary or traditional. An statement that appeals to the distinction tin be establish in "Frugality in Funerals." The Mohists point to the variety between burying customs among the tribal peoples on the periphery of the Chinese globe and notation that, although what the tribes practice is customary within their communities, these practices also are all understood by an elite Chinese audience to exist barbaric and immoral. The Mohists thus urge that, just because elaborate funerals and lengthy mourning are customary practices among the gentlemen of the key states, this fact lone volition not secure their consistency with moral rightness.

Quaternary, for the Mohists, the Way is the subject field of explicit expression in the form of "doctrine" (yan). Before proceeding with this point, it must exist stressed that the term yan in the core capacity and other texts contemporary to the flow ( the Mencius for instance) is frequently not best taken equally "linguistic communication" or "speech" in any generic sense. Rather, information technology often ways "doctrine" or "saying of acquit," a verbal parcel meant to guide individual conduct and land policy. In other words, we can accept yan in the core capacity as the verbal counterpart to a conception of the Style, a linguistic formula that identifies a Fashion of life and guiding the bear of those who agree to it.

Not only are Mozi and the Mohists concerned to advance a Style, they are explicit in verbalizing their Manner as doctrine, offering arguments for it and defending it against rival doctrines. In disputation, they often first formulate their rivals' positions as opposing doctrines earlier attempting to refute them. They also often identify rivals by the doctrines they supposedly "hold to" (for instance, they speak of "the doctrine of those who hold to [the thesis that] ("fate exists'" in "Confronting Fatalism"). At that place is even a tendency to run into the problematic conduct of people equally largely springing from wrong doctrine, quite autonomously from the concern to offer arguments against various opponent positions. In improver, when the Mohists evaluate a practice or way of conduct, they sometimes speak in terms of evaluating the doctrinethat (putatively) corresponds to that practice (see, for instance, "Frugality in Funerals").

The "Ten Theses" as a whole tin thus be taken as presenting the sum of Mohist doctrine, which is itself the verbal or linguistic counterpart to their Mode, their conception of what is morally right. The characteristically Mohist tendency to see the Way every bit open to linguistic formulation puts them in sharp contrast with "Daoist" traditions such as those associated with Laozi and Zhuangzi. In fact, as Robert Eno has argued, the Mohist focus on doctrine very probable forms the polemical groundwork to the critique against language in texts such as the "Discourse on Making Things Equal" affiliate in the Zhuangzi.

v. Moral Epistemology

One of the philosophically most interesting aspects of the Mohist concern with doctrine is their explicit word of criteria for evaluating doctrine in the "Against Fatalism" chapters. The "Three Tests of Doctrine" are introduced as the "standards" or "gnomons" (yi) without which doctrinal disputes become futile. As version C puts information technology: "To expound doctrine without first establishing standards (yi) is like telling time using a sundial that has been placed on a spinning potter'due south bicycle." The consequence is that the dispute volition exist interminable.

Although each version of "Against Fatalism" lists three "Tests," the lists differ and a total of four distinct "Tests" can exist identified:

Conformity to the Will of Sky and the Spirits — this criterion is mentioned just in "Against Fatalism" B only forms the subject matter of the "Sky's Will" chapters. In those chapters, nosotros tin can also discover the claim that Heaven's will is to Mozi like as "the compass is to a wheelwright or the setsquare is to a carpenter." Just as the wheelwright and carpenter employ these tools to evaluate if some object is properly considered round or square, so Mozi is said to lay downwardly Heaven's volition equally a model (fa) and institute it as a standard (yi) by which conduct and doctrines tin be evaluated.
Conformity to the teaching and exercise of the aboriginal sage kings — Varieties of this "Test" are reported in all versions of "Against Fatalism" and its awarding can exist seen throughout the core capacity.
Good consequences for the welfare of the earth (peculiarly the fabric wellbeing of the common people understood in terms of them having food, shelter and residuum) — Varieties of this "Test" are besides reported in all versions of "Against Fatalism" and a lengthy elaboration tin also exist institute in "Frugality in Funerals."
Confirmation by the testimony of the masses' sense of sight and hearing — This "Test" is listed in "Against Fatalism" A and C, and there are only 2 certain applications" in the core capacity: in the "Elucidating Ghosts" chapter as part of the proof that providential ghosts exist, and in "Confronting Fatalism" B equally part of the argument against the doctrine of fatalism.

There seems to be a widespread temptation to metaphrase the different "Tests" in the following way: if a doctrine (yan) passes a "Test," it is true. On this interpretation, the third "Exam" might suggest a businesslike conception of truth (or at least a pragmatic conception of the justification of truth claims). But such a reading is at all-time underdetermined past the text. It is also unnecessary as long every bit we proceed in mind that the sort of yan at pale in the Core Capacity is usually such doctrine every bit is meant to guide conduct.

With that background in listen, we tin at least run across the first three "Tests" as beingness meant precisely for evaluating such yan as are naturally evaluated in terms of whether they correctly guide man comport, rather than whether they make a true factual claim. This ways that these "Tests" are best taken as criteria for assessing the soundness of normative rather than descriptive claims. Now given that Mohist doctrine is meant to be the verbal correlate of their conception of the Way, which in plough can be taken as their conception of what is morally correct, it follows that "sound doctrine" in the context of Mohist thought is ultimately doctrine that enjoins morally right conduct and in this specific sense correctly guides human being acquit. This also implies that each of these "Tests" can be understood as a criterion for moral rightness.

As for the fourth "Exam," while it seems natural to take information technology equally a criterion for evaluating factual, rather than normative claims, information technology should even so be kept in listen that the Mohists appear to be primarily interested in the normative or policy implications of the (putatively factual) claims involved.

6. The Foundations of Mohist Morality

An intriguing question concerns how the different "Tests of Doctrine" (and thus the benchmark of moral rightness to which each corresponds) chronicle to each other and whether whatever amid them is the ultimate criterion to which the others can exist reduced.

Of the 3 main "Tests," the second one (conformity to the teaching and practice of the ancient sage kings), is near easily shown to be derivative. The core chapters define the sage (and the related "benevolent human," which means roughly "platonic ruler" in context) as someone whose business organization information technology is to bring nigh guild to the world ("Impartial Concern" A) or to promote the world's welfare and eliminate things that harm it ("Impartial Concern" B, C, "Frugality in Funerals," "Confronting Music"). In "Heaven's Will," on the other hand, the ancient sages are cited equally examples of those who conducted themselves in accordance with Heaven's will. In summary, the aboriginal sages are presented by the Mohists equally widely acknowledged exemplars of by rulers who successfully conducted themselves according to the Way, and the very reason why they are acknowledged to be sage kings is precisely because they taught sound doctrine and expert the Way.

Given the wider cultural setting and prevailing rhetorical conventions, the Mohists' extensive appeal to the example and authority of the ancient sages is entirely understandable. Whatever their actual attitudes concerning the deeds and writings of the ancient sages as constituting a criterion of sound doctrine, the Mohists nowadays themselves as addressing people who take the moral example of the ancient sages seriously. In this, their rhetorical practices do not differ from those of the Confucians. The two groups fifty-fifty share an overlapping gustatory modality in their choice of favored aboriginal sages: Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, and Wu.

This leaves Heaven's Volition and good consequences for the welfare of the world as criteria of sound doctrine. At that place is a strong tradition of mod interpreters, such as Fung Yu-lan, Angus C. Graham, and Benjamin Schwartz, who see the latter every bit principal and take Mohist doctrine to exemplify a form of utilitarianism. Other scholars, such as Dennis M. Ahren, David Eastward. Soles, and Augustine Tseu, run across the erstwhile every bit suggesting a divine command theory of morality, although this interpretation has been criticized by Kristopher Duda amidst others. This controversy is non well framed if it is stated purely in terms of the modern and somewhat alien categories of command theory and utilitarianism (or consequentialism). But this criticism aside, the genuine question remains equally to how "Heaven's Will" and "practiced consequences" chronicle to each other as criteria of the morally correct.

In favor of the position that the criterion of good consequences is ultimate, information technology may be pointed out that fifty-fifty within the "Heaven'due south Volition" chapters, the Mohists argue on the ground that certain ways of conduct are in accordance with Heaven'southward Volition because they promote the public expert. It is further claimed that Heaven desires that people practise certain sorts of things or acquit themselves in a certain manner because such conduct will promote the public good, an outcome that Heaven desires. These considerations suggest that the benchmark of Sky's Volition might ultimately exist reducible to that of good consequences.

In response, information technology is at least possible that while the question what ways of conduct are morally right? is always accountable in terms of whether or not a way of conduct promotes good consequences, the split question of why these ways of conduct (picked out using the criterion of expert consequences) are ultimately obligatory is answered with reference to Sky's Will. If this is right, and so there is a sense in which the two criteria neither reduce to each other nor potentially conflict, as they answer to different concerns birthday.

In any instance, almost all of the Mohists' proposals are explicitly dedicated on the basis that adopting them volition promote the public good. We might thus modestly conclude that any the final condition of Heaven'due south Will as a criterion of the morally right, good consequences for the globe is the operational criterion past which the Mohists evaluate various doctrines and the means of conduct they enunciate. This decision is lent further support by the fact that Heaven's Volition near never features as an explicit part of the Mohists' arguments for their specific proposals outside of the "Heaven's Volition" capacity.

7. Impartial Concern

Whether "Sky's will" or "good consequences for the world" forms the ultimate criterion of the morally right, the near salient starting time-guild ethical injunction in Mohist doctrine remains that of "impartial concern" (jian'ai). This is an injunction that is argued for both on the basis that it exemplifies Heaven's Volition (in the "Heaven'southward Will" triad) and that it is conducive to the gild and welfare of the globe (in the "Impartial Business" triad). In addition, the presentation of the doctrine (in all versions of "Impartial Concern") strongly suggests that it is meant to be the panacea for all that is seriously incorrect with the world and, to that extent, identifies the master substance of the Mohists' Way.

As before indicated, "impartial concern" might be stated as the injunction that people ought to be concerned for the welfare of others without making distinctions between self and others, associates and strangers. Scrutiny of the cadre chapters, however, suggests both more and less stringent interpretations of what it entails by way of conduct. At one extreme, the injunction seems to require that people ought (to seek) to benefit strangers as much as they practise assembly, and others, equally much as they do themselves. At the other extreme, it only requires that people refrain from harming strangers as much as they exercise associates, and others, as much as they do themselves. A third, intermediate possibility says that people ought (to seek) to help strangers with urgent needs as much as they do associates, and others, every bit much every bit they do themselves.

The least stringent interpretation is implied by passages (in all versions of "Impartial Business organisation") where the injunction is argued for on the basis that adopting it will put a stop to the violent inter-personal and inter-group conflicts that beset the world, since on the Mohist account, it is people's trend to act on the basis of a greater regard for their own welfare over that of others, and that of their associates over that of strangers, that led them to accept no qualms well-nigh benefiting themselves or their own assembly at the expense of others and fifty-fifty to do and so using violent means. The injunction of "impartial business concern" is meant to be a reversal of this tendency. On the other hand, the more than demanding interpretations are suggested specially past "Impartial Business concern C," in which information technology is said that if the doctrine is adopted b people, so not only volition people not fight, the welfare of the weak and disadvantaged will be taken care of by those meliorate endowed.

Whichever estimation is taken, the basic injunction points toward an underlying notion of impartiality. Nosotros tin can accept "impartial concern" every bit making explicit the notion that the mutual benefit of the earth is, in some sense, impartially the benefit of everyone.

In "Impartial Concern" C, the Mohists put forward an interesting thought experiment ostensibly to show that even people who are committed to being more concerned for the welfare of cocky that for that of others, and associates than strangers have some reason to value impartial concern. They described a scenario in which the audience is asked to imagine that they are about to go on a long journey and demand to put their family unit members in the care of another. The Mohists merits that the obvious and rational option would be to put i's family members in the care of an impartialist rather than a partialist (that is, someone who is committed to "impartial concern" as opposed to someone who is committed to the contrary).

In that location are several problems with this argument. It seems to involve a false dilemma since the options of impartialist and partialist hardly exhaust the range of possible choices. Even if the Mohists were correct to claim that the impartialist is the obvious and rational choice, all it shows is that partialists have skilful reason to adopt that other people conduct themselves according to the dictates of impartial business organization, rather than that they have reason to so deport themselves, equally Chad Hansen and Bryan W. Van Norden take pointed out. In defense of the Mohists, however, it might be the case that they are ultimately only concerned to establish that even partialists have reason to propagate the Mohists' doctrine of impartial business, a conclusion that could follow from their argument.

eight. Moral Psychology and Man Nature

Mohist doctrine as it is presented in the cadre capacity does not contain explicit discussions of the psychological aspects of the ethical life. "Human nature" (xing), a term that plays an of import function in the thinking of the Confucian thinkers Mencius and Xunzi, too as Yang Zhu, does not even appear in the core chapters. Nonetheless, various aspects of Mohist doctrine might well entail commitments to potentially controversial positions in moral psychology and the theory of human nature.

Consider the Mohists' reply to the main objection raised against their doctrine of "impartial business" — that the doctrine is overly demanding, given that people in general only do not take the motivational resources to act according to its dictates ("Impartial Business" B and C). Citing historical accounts, the Mohists respond that the requirements of "impartial concern" are no harder than the sorts of things that rulers in the past had been able to demand and get from their subjects, such as reducing ane's diet, wearing coarse clothing, and charging into flames at the ruler'south command. Information technology was considering the rulers delighted in such deportment and offered suitable incentives to encourage them that they were done, even on a regular basis. The Mohists conclude that people in general can be fabricated to practise "impartial business organization" as long as rulers delight in information technology and offer the right incentives to encourage it.

On the ground of passages such as this i, David S. Nivison and Bryan W. Van Norden fence that either the Mohists held the view that human being nature is infinitely malleable or they thought that at that place is no human being nature. Such a reading focuses on the extravagant claim made in the text that every bit long as the rulers delight in "impartial concern" and offer the correct incentives, homo beings (particularly the construction of their motivations) tin can be radically changed "within a single generation." While this interpretation certainly is compatible with the tenor of the text, it is not necessarily the but possible estimation. Subsequently all, all that is needed for the Mohists to brand their reply is the thought that people — given their nature — tin can be made to practice "impartial concern" through offering them the correct leadership and incentives. They inappreciably need the stronger (and less plausible) claim that people can be remolded in any fashion whatsoever given the right leadership and incentives. Furthermore, at to the lowest degree some of the historical examples cited past the Mohists suggest that they are thinking more of the people responding to incentives in the environment (e.g., the comfort-loving courtier wearing coarse clothing or going on a diet so as to please the ruler) rather than more than radical changes to the structure of their motivations (every bit might be suggested by the story of the soldiers who have been conditioned to charge into flames on the ruler'southward command).

A weaker and to that extent more defensible estimation is that the Mohists do not consider the Manner in a Mencian sense — as "the realization of certain inclinations that human beings already share," as Shun Kwong-loi puts it. To be more precise, the Mohists do not appear to have considered the inclinations and predispositions that people already take as pointing to the contents of the Way. But they need non deny that these inclinations might, under suitable weather condition (e.one thousand., under a suitable authorities of incentives), furnish the motivational resources for an agent to conduct himself well (the "Mohist" Yi Zhi in Mencius 3A5 seems to have taken a version of such a position) — as long as it is recalled that what counts every bit "conducting oneself well" is given by something else other than those inclinations or their evolution: audio doctrine established past rational arguments. Seen this way, the Mohists would be in direct opposition to Mencius, insofar as Mencius regards those "inclinations that human beings already share" (explicitly construed within the context of an business relationship of human being nature) as providing both the contents of morality and the motivational resources for moral cultivation.

9. Government

The Mohists' political ideal is almost prominently stated in the "Elevating the Worthy" and "Exalting Unity" chapters, which include the but theses that are explicitly said to place "fundamentals of governance" (wei zheng zhi ben).

The "Exalting Unity" triad of capacity contains a "land of nature" argument that bears comparing both with ideas institute in the Confucian philosopher Xunzi and perhaps more remotely, Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan and the social contract tradition of early modernistic European thought. As with the latter, it is at least arguable that even though the account is couched as if making historical claims nigh how man beings were like in a afar by "before at that place were whatever laws and criminal punishment" (version A) or "before there were rulers or leaders" (versions B and C), its logic is ameliorate appreciated if taken as a thought experiment of what things would be like were sure hypothetical weather condition to agree.

The most important implications of such a hypothesis, for the Mohists, is that people will hold to different and conflicting opinions about what is morally correct (yi), on the footing of which they will condemn each other. The stop result is a state of violent disharmonize and chaos. This chaos is fully resolved simply with the installment of a hierarchy of rulers and leaders consistently enforcing a unified conception of what is morally right through surveillance and incentives. The determination of the argument is that such a solution is a necessary condition for social and political order.

The "Elevating the Worthy" triad of chapters, on the other hand, proposes that good governance requires that the land cultivate worthy and capable people and employ them as officials, any their social origin. This doctrine opposes a form of meritocracy to the nepotism and cronyism prevalent amidst the rulers. Information technology also insists that if the doctrine is to be successfully carried though, the rulers need to confer high rank, generous stipend and existent power upon the worthy. Interestingly, in arguing for the doctrine, version B both traces it to the practices of the aboriginal sage kings and also says that the ancients were modeling their government upon Heaven, thus suggesting that an application of the criterion of "Heaven's will" in involved. Nonetheless, the main thrust of all three versions remains that meritocracy will bring not bad benefits to the state.

10. Frugality

Three of the x core Mohist theses are related to the virtue of frugality: "Frugality in Expenditures," "Frugality in Funerals," and "Confronting Music." For the well-nigh part, the arguments in these chapters are paradigmatic cases of "skilful consequences to the welfare of the world" as criterion of the morally right. (As mentioned earlier, a lengthy elaboration of the benchmark can be constitute in the opening parts of "Frugality in Funerals.") In "Frugality in Expenditures," the benchmark is applied positively through showing that the preferred policy of regime thrift brings well-nigh beneficial consequences. In the other two triads, the criterion is applied negatively through detailing the harmful consequences that nourish elaborate funerals and prolonged mourning, and extravagant music displays of the elite.

One interesting characteristic of the arguments in these capacity is the weight given to the welfare of the common people in the Mohists' calculation of the benefit and damage that outcome from the policy under cess. This aspect of Mohist doctrine is especially prominent in "Against Music," where a large part of what counts as the "good consequences" of a policy is articulated in terms of the mutual people receiving plenty to consume, being protected from the elements and having sufficient rest. Information technology thus seems that, despite their delivery to "impartial concern," the Mohists have a partisan concern for the interests of the lower social classes. The more than charitable interpretation, even so, is that they are accommodating concerns in the region of distributive justice. That is, the common benefit of the world is in some sense impartially and equally the benefit of everyone; but since the Mohists — like most thinkers in ancient Red china — practise non envision a radical elimination of the vast social, economical and political inequalities that are just a fact of life in Warring States People's republic of china, the distributive concerns are met by giving extra weight to the interests of the disadvantaged. This reading is also consonant with their claim that were "impartial concern" to be widely practice, the welfare of the weak and disadvantaged volition be taken care of by those improve endowed (in "Impartial Business organisation C").

A more serious charge confronting the Mohists, however, is that their doctrine on frugality commits them to an overly restrictive and hence highly implausible conception of the expert. The Confucian thinker Xunzi defends elaborate Confucian funeral rituals and musical displays confronting Mohist attacks past claiming that they given form to, and meet, the emotional needs of people. Conversely, Mohist doctrine simply fails to have into account aspects of the human being good not reducible to textile livelihood. Insofar as Mohist doctrine does imply such a reduced conception of the human good, this is a cogent objection.

But insofar as the principal weight of the Mohist arguments lies in the thought that it is unjust of the aristocrats to provide for their ain emotional needs (through elaborate funerals and prolonged mourning) or refined enjoyment (though elaborate musical displays) through an imposition upon the labor of the common people, the objection is not decisive. Interestingly plenty, that this what the Mohists have in mind is indicated in "Confronting Music." The text apologizes for attacking the elite's musical displays by conceding that while music and other refinements are "delightful," they bring no benefit to the common people and, in fact, harm their livelihood.

11. Just State of war

The Mohists reserved some of their most trenchant condemnations confronting military aggression, asserting that offensive state of war is harmful to the welfare of the world and reverse to Sky's will. Ane argument (2 variations of which can be found in "Against Military machine Aggression" A and "Heaven's Will" C) gain by claiming that in that location is an analogy between the actions of a armed forces aggressor and those of people who steal or rob others or who murder. And since (every bit even the audience agrees) stealing, robbing and murdering are morally incorrect, and since actions that crusade greater damage to others are, to that extent, greater wrongs, military assailment is a slap-up incorrect indeed.

Another series of arguments (in "Against Armed forces Assailment" B and C) proceeds by pointing out in some detail the economic and human cost of armed forces aggression fifty-fifty to the aggressors. To the reply that some of the Warring States appear to have greatly profited from their ambitious means, the Mohists bespeak out that they are the rare exceptions and seeking profit by such ways is tantamount to calling a medication effective that cured four or five out of myriads.

Perhaps as befits the difference in addressee, the second set of arguments appears more than pragmatic as it appeals to the "state of war-loving" rulers' sense of self-interest. The earlier argument, on the other hand, appears to aim showing the gentlemen of the world that they ought to condemn military machine aggression if they are to exist consistent with their own normative convictions — if they know that stealing, robbing and murdering is wrong and blameworthy, they ought as well to consider military assailment wrong and blameworthy.

The objection is raised in "Against Armed services Aggression" C that the ancient sage kings waged war, and since they are supposed to be models of moral rectitude, it follows that war cannot be unqualifiedly wrong. In response, the Mohists innovate a distinction between justified and unjustified warfare, claiming that the former was waged by the righteous ancient sage rulers to overthrow evil tyrants. The precise criterion of the distinction between the ii forms of warfare, nonetheless, is not explicitly spelled out in that chapter. Instead, justified warfare is associated with supernatural signs indicating that Heaven has given the ruler a mandate to wage war so as to visit condign penalization upon some wicked tyrant. This is surprising since elsewhere ("Impartial Concern" C), the Mohists present the sage Yu'south military campaigns to pacify the unruly Miao tribes as an example of his "impartial concern" for the welfare of the people of the world. This suggests that there are ample resources within Mohist doctrine to spell out the distinction in less exotic terms. But since they did connect the distinction between justified and unjustified warfare to Heaven and the spirits, a discussion of the Mohists' religious views is in order.

12. Heaven and Spirits

Inside the core capacity, the Mohists consistently portray Sky every bit if it possesses personal characteristics and exists separately from human beings, though intervening in their diplomacy. In particular, they present Heaven if it is an entity having will and desire, and concerned about the welfare of the people of the globe, even a providential agent that rewards the but and punishes the wicked through its control of natural phenomena or past ways of its superhuman intermediaries, the spirits (guishen). Finally, Heaven and the spirits are also portrayed as the objects of reverence, sacrificial offerings and supplication ("Heaven's Will" B).

Apart from the before mentioned role of Sky'due south will in providing a benchmark for what is morally correct, the Mohists also blame people's loss of belief in the existence, power and providential character of spirits for the perceived immorality and chaos of their fourth dimension. This motivates them to argue that such spirits practice exist in "Elucidating the Spirits." Merely the Mohists' considered position with regards to the existence of providential spirits as opposed to the usefulness of a widespread belief in their beingness is an ambiguous ane at best. While the first parts of "Elucidating the Spirits" seem aimed at establishing that the spirits exist (past highly-seasoned to the testimony of people sense of sight and hearing), the bulk of the arguments in the chapter are better taken as attempts to prove that it is socially and politically beneficial that people in full general believe in the existence of providential spirits and that the government organize its affairs on the ground that they exist. As the text puts information technology:

If the fact that ghosts and spirits advantage the worthy and punish the evil can be made a cornerstone of policy in the state and impressed upon the common people, it volition provide a means to bring order to the country and benefit to the people.

In this regard, an argument that appears towards the end of the chapter is near telling. To the objection that the doctrine on spirits entails the need to sacrifice to them, which in turn interferes with ane's duties towards i'southward living parents, the Mohists reply that if the spirits do exist, then the sacrifices cannot be considered a waste material of resource; but if they do not exist, and so the customs can still come up together to share in the communion of the sacrificial wine and millet and the sacrifice will still serve a socially useful office. The argument implies that what the Mohists are ultimately concerned to debate for is neutral with respect to whether or not providential spirits actually exist, as the author and Benjamin Wong have pointed out.

thirteen. References and Further Reading

Ahern, Dennis Chiliad. "Is Mo Tzu a Utilitarian?" Periodical of Chinese Philosophy three (1976): 185-193.
Duda, Kristopher. "Reconsidering Mo Tzu on the Foundations of Morality." Asian Philosophy 11/1 (2001): 23-31.
Fung Yu-lan. A History of Chinese Philosophy. ii vols. Trans. Derk Bodde. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1952-53.
Graham, Angus C. Divisions in Early Mohism Reflected in the Core Chapters of Mo-tzu. Singapore: Found of East Asian Philosophies, 1985.
Graham, Angus C. Later Mohist Logic, Ideals, and Science. Hong Kong: Chinese University Printing / London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1978; reprinted 2003.
Hansen, Republic of chad. A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought: A Philosophical Estimation. New York: Oxford Academy Press, 1992.
Hsiao Kung-chuan. A History of Chinese Political Thought, Vol. 1: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century A. D. Trans. F. W. Mote. Princeton: Princeton Academy Press, 1979.
Hu Shih. The Development of the Logical Method in Ancient China. 2nd edition. New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corp., 1963.
Ivanhoe, Philip J. "Mohist Philosophy." In Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward Craig (London and New York: Routledge, 1998), 6:451-458.
Knoblock, John, trans.Xunzi: A Translation and Report of the Consummate Works. iii vols. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988-94.
Lai, Whalen. "The Public Expert that does the Public Skillful: A New Reading of Mohism." Asian Philosophy iii/2 (1993): 125-141.
Lowe, Scott. Mo Tzu's Religious Blueprint for a Chinese Utopia: The Will and the Way. Ontario: Edwin Mellen Press, 1992.
Loy, Hui-chieh. "On a Gedankenexperiment in the Mozi Cadre Chapters." Oriens Extremus 45 (2005): 141-158.
Maeder, Erik W. "Some Observations on the Composition of the €˜Core Capacity' of the Mozi." Early Cathay 17 (1992): 27-82.
Mei, Yi-pao. Mo-tse, the Neglected Rival of Confucius. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1934.
Mei, Yi-pao. The Upstanding and Political Works of Motse. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1929.
Nivison, David S. The Ways of Confucianism: Investigations in Chinese Philosophy. Ed. Bryan W. Van Norden. La Salle, IL: Open Courtroom, 1996.
Pines, Yuri. Foundations of Confucian Thought: Intellectual life in the Chunqiu Menstruation, 722-453 B.C.E. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002.
Schwartz, Benjamin. The Globe of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1985.
Shaughnessy, Edward L., and Michael Loewe, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient Communist china : From the Beginnings of Civilisation to 221 b.c. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Shun, Kwong-loi. Mencius and Early Chinese Thought. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997.
Soles, David Eastward. "Mo Tzu and the foundations of Morality." Journal of Chinese Philosophy 26/1 (1999): 37-48.
Taylor, Rodney L. "Religion and utilitarianism: Mo Tzu on spirits and funerals." Philosophy East and West 29/3 (July 1979): 337-346.
Tseu, Augustine. The Moral Philosophy of Mozi. Taipei: China Press Express, 1965.
Van Norden, Bryan Due west. "A Response to the Mohist Arguments in €˜Impartial Caring.'" In The Moral Circle and the Cocky: Chinese and Western Approaches, eds. Kim-chong Chong, Sor-Hoon Tan and C. Fifty. Ten (Chicago: Open Court, 2003), 41-58.
Vorenkamp, Dirck. "Another Expect at Utilitarianism in Mo Tzu's Thought." Journal of Chinese Philosophy 19 (1992): 423-443.
Watson, Burton, trans. Mo Tzu: Bones Writings. Columbia University Press, 1963.
Wong, Benjamin, and Hui-chieh Loy. "War and Ghosts in Mozi's Political Philosophy." Philosophy East and West 54/three (2004): 343-363.
Wong, David B. "Mohism: The Founder, Mozi (Mo Tzu)." In Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy, ed. Antonio S. Cua (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), 453-461.
Wong, David B. "Universalism versus Dearest with Distinctions: An Ancient Debate Revived." Journal of Chinese Philosophy sixteen/3-4 (September-Dec 1989): 251-272.
Yates, Robin D.S. "The Mohists on Warfare: Technology, Technique, and Justification." Journal of the American Academy of Faith 47 (1979): 549-603.

Writer Information

Hui-chieh Loy
Email: philoyhc@nus.edu.sg
National University of Singapore
Singapore

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Source: https://iep.utm.edu/mozi/

Stevens Hoorne